Games, Play and Education: Learning Theories

Bibl. Angaben: Blumstengel, Astrid (1998). Berlin: Wiss. Verlag Berlin. Internet: http://dsor-fs.upb.de/~blumstengel/main_index ... (besucht am: 16.3.2008).
An excellent online-ressource in form of a hypertext on different approaches to learning environments.
Unfortunately this source is in German, and I haven't found a comparable online-equivalent in English. Anyone?

http://dsor-fs.upb.de/~blumstengel/main_index ...

Recommended reads:
2.2.2. Lerntheorien: http://dsor.upb.de/~blumstengel/Lerntheorien. ...
Go for 'Behaviourismus', 'Kognitivismus', 'Konstruktivismus'.
2.2.3.5 Motivation: http://dsor-fs.upb.de/~blumstengel/Motivation ...

From the abstract:

(...) Zu den vielfältigen Erfolgsfaktoren der pädagogisch-didaktischen Gestaltung zählen neben der Form der curricularen Einbindung die zugrundeliegende Lerntheorie,
die in jeder Lernsoftware zum Ausdruck kommt, ebenso wie die Lernziele, der Interaktivitätsgrad sowie die Berücksichtigung individueller Differenzen.

John Keller

Bibl. Angaben:Keller, John, Internet: http://www.learning-theories.com/kellers-arcs ... (besucht am: 12.4.2008).

This is a comprehensive short summary of Keller's Model: http://www.learning-theories.com/kellers-arcs ...

Summary: According to John Keller’s ARCS Model of Motivational Design, there are four steps for promoting and sustaining motivation in the learning process: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction (ARCS).

Originator: John Keller

Key terms: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction (ARCS)

ARCS Model of Motivational Design (Keller)

1. Attention

Attention can be gained in two ways: (1) Perceptual arousal - uses surprise or uncertainty to gain interest. Uses novel, surprising, incongruous, and uncertain events; or (2) Inquiry arousal - stimulates curiosity by posing challenging questions or problems to be solved.
Methods for grabbing the learners’ attention include the use of:

o Active participation -Adopt strategies such as games, roleplay or other hands-on methods to get learners involved with the material or subject matter. o Variability - To better reinforce materials and account for individual differences in learning styles, use a variety of methods in presenting material (e.g. use of videos, short lectures, mini-discussion groups). o Humor -Maintain interest by use a small amount of humor (but not too much to be distracting) o Incongruity and Conflict - A devil’s advocate approach in which statements are posed that go against a learner’s past experiences. o Specific examples - Use a visual stimuli, story, or biography. o Inquiry - Pose questions or problems for the learners to solve, e.g. brainstorming activities.

2. Relevance

Establish relevance in order to increase a learner’s motivation. To do this, use concrete language and examples with which the learners are familiar. Six major strategies described by Keller include:

o Experience - Tell the learners how the new learning will use their existing skills. We best learn by building upon our preset knowledge or skills. o Present Worth - What will the subject matter do for me today? o Future Usefulness - What will the subject matter do for me tomorrow? o Needs Matching - Take advantage of the dynamics of achievement, risk taking, power, and affiliation. o Modeling - First of all, “be what you want them to do!” Other strategies include guest speakers, videos, and having the learners who finish their work first to serve as tutors. o Choice - Allow the learners to use different methods to pursue their work or allowing s choice in how they organize it.

3. Confidence

Help students understand their likelihood for success. If they feel they cannot meet the objectives or that the cost (time or effort) is too high, their motivation will decrease.
Provide objectives and prerequisites - Help students estimate the probability of success by presenting performance requirements and evaluation criteria. Ensure the learners are aware of performance requirements and evaluative criteria.
Allow for success that is meaningful.
Grow the Learners - Allow for small steps of growth during the learning process.
Feedback - Provide feedback and support internal attributions for success.
Learner Control - Learners should feel some degree of control over their learning and assessment. They should believe that their success is a direct result of the amount of effort they have put forth.

4. Satisfaction

Learning must be rewarding or satisfying in some way, whether it is from a sense of achievement, praise from a higher-up, or mere entertainment.
Make the learner feel as though the skill is useful or beneficial by providing opportunities to use newly acquired knowledge in a real setting.
Provide feedback and reinforcement. When learners appreciate the results, they will be motivated to learn. Satisfaction is based upon motivation, which can be intrinsic or extrinsic.
Do not patronize the learner by over-rewarding easy tasks.

For more information, see:

Keller, J. M. (1983). Motivational design of instruction. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models: An overview of their current status. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Keller, J. M. (1984). The use of the ARCS model of motivation in teacher training. In K. Shaw & A. J. Trott (Eds.), Aspects of Educational Technology Volume XVII: staff Development and Career Updating. London: Kogan Page.
Keller, J. M. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of motivational design. Journal of Instructional Development, 10(3), 2-10. John Keller’s Official ARCS Model ...

Brenda Mergel

Bibl. Angaben: Mergel, Brenda (1998).

This is a good general overview over the three common learning paradigms of the last century.

Link to the webpage: http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm

Introduction:

To students of instructional design the introduction and subsequent "sorting out" of the various learning theories and associated instructional design strategies can be somewhat confusing.
It was out of this feeling of cognitive dissonance that this site was born.

Why does it seem so difficult to differentiate between three basic theories of learning?
Why do the names of theorists appear connected to more than one theory?
Why do the terms and strategies of each theory overlap?

The need for answers to these questions sparked my investigation into the available literature on learning theories and their implications for instructional design.
I found many articles and internet sites that dealt with learning theory and ID, in fact, it was difficult to know when and where to draw the line.
When I stopped finding new information, and the articles were reaffirming what I had already read, I began to write.

The writing process was a learning experience for me and now that I have finished, I want to start over and make it even better, because I know more now than I did when I began.
Every time I reread an article, there were ideas and lists that I would wish to add to my writing.
Perhaps in further development of this site I will change and refine my presentation.

Reading about the development of learning theories and their connection to instructional design evoked, for me, many parallels with the development of other theories in sciences.
I have included some of those thoughts as asides within the main body of text.

Besides behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism one could discuss such topics as connoisseurship, semiotics, and contextualism,but I decided that a clear understanding of the basic learning theories would be best.

Dean R. Spitzer

AutorInnen:Constance Frith

Paragraph taken from a paper by Constance Frith, University of Saskatchewan, June, 1997 http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/Frith/Motivation.HTM Spitzer, D. R. (1996). Motivation: The neglected factor in instructional design. Educational Technology, May-June.

Spitzer's (1996) concept of supermotivation puts emphasis on the activity rather on the individual. Comparing learning to sport, he acknowledges that most activities are inherently boring. The activity of golf for example is rather repetitive and boring if taken out of the context of the game. The motivating contexts of the game include: action, fun, choice, social interaction, error tolerance, measurement, feedback, challenge and recognition. These factors applied to a learning situation are motivating for students.

Action involves getting learners out of their seats and actively involved in the learning process both mentally and physically.

Fun helps to energize students and provides opportunities for different formats and student involvement. Computer games are a good example of how to imbed learning activities with fun.

Choice provides variety and learner control. Choice may be provided through choice of learning method, content or instructional materials.

Social Interaction is a higher-level need according to Maslow. Opportunities for social interaction can include small group discussions, peer tutoring, collaborative problem-solving and decision-making.

Error tolerance is often low in educational settings. Learners must feel comfortable to make mistakes and have opportunities to learn from them.

Measurement such as score keeping in sports is a motivating factor. Measurement in sports tracks progress. In a learning environment measurement can be repositioned into a facilitating force that includes focusing on formative evaluation, soliciting learner input into what should be measured, and encouraging self-measurement.

Feedback in sports is always immediate and predominately positive. In learning often feedback is discouraging. Constructive feedback should be continuous, pointing out the positive and focusing on how performance can be improved in the future.

Challenges can be motivating particularly if the learner responds to challenges by setting goals. Surprisingly self set goals tend to be more ambitious then those set by others.

Recognition should occur for minor achievements as well as major ones. It is important to point out many positives to the learner.

Based on Spitzer, D. R. (1996). Motivation: The neglected factor in instructional design. Educational Technology, May-June.